•  
  •  
 

Abstract

Trichomoniasis is a parasitic disease that infects the genitourinary system in humans and is caused by Trichomonas vaginalis. This disease has a high classification among non-viral sexually transmitted diseases in the world comprising Iraq. The Data in the present review about prevalence of T. vaginalis in Iraq were collected using databases such as (Iraqi Academic scientific Journals, Google scholar, Medline and pubMed) based on the recent studies. The current review exhibited that the highest infection rate by this parasite in females was 75.22%, 62% in Maysan and Tikrit provinces respectively, and the lowest infection rate was 1.6% and 1.66% in Basrah and Sulaimania province, while the infection rate is ranged between 2.3 - 63.8% in males of Basrah province. The incidence of T. vaginalis is affected by diagnostic methods and some demographic variables such as gender, residence, educational, economic level, occupation and pregnancy. The prevention strategy for T. vaginalis includes maintaining personal hygiene, treating both partners, not just the infected, abstaining from sexual contact during the treatment period and using condoms.

References

[1] Yazar S, Dagel I, Aksoy U, Ustun S, Daldal N. Frequency Trichomonas vaginalis among women having vaginal discharge. Izmir, Turkey, Inonu Univ Tip Fakultesi Derg 2002;9(3):159-61.

[2] Sastry AS, Bhat S. Essentials of medical parasitology. New Delhi. London. Philadelphia. Panama: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd; 2014. p. 55-8.

[3] WHO. Prevalence and incidence of selected sexually transmitted infections, Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, syphilis and Trichomonas vaginalis: methods and results used by WHO to generate 2005 estimates. 2011. 2011.

[4] Lewis DA. Trichomoniasis. Medicine 2010;38:291-3. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.mpmed.2014.04.004.

[5] Gunn A, Pitt SJ. Parasitology an integrated approach. 1th ed. Wiley e Blackwell. A John Wiley and Sons, Ltd, Publication. UK.; 2012. p. 37-8.

[6] Zeibig EA. Clinical Parasitology. A practical approach. Second Edition. Philadelphia: WB. B. Saunders Company; 2013. p. 97-100.

[7] Pereira-Neves A, Ribeiro KC, Benchimol M. Pseudocysts in trichomonadsenew insights. Protist 2003;154:313-29. https:// doi.org/10.1078/143446103322454095.

[8] Munsch M, Lotfi A, Hafez HM, Al-Quraishy S, Mehlhorn H. Light and transmission electron microscopic studies on trophozoites and cyst-like stages of Histomonas meleagridis from cultures. Parasitol Res 2009;104:683-9.

[9] Dias-Lopes G, Saboia-Vahia L, Margotti ET, Fernandes NS, Castro CLF, Oliveira FO, et al. Morphologic study of the effect of iron on pseudocyst formation in Trichomonas vaginalis and its interaction with human epithelial cells. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2017;112:664-73. https://doi.org/10.1590/ 0074-02760170032.

[10] Ribeiro KC, Arnholdt AC, Benchimol M. Tritrichomonas foetus: induced division synchrony by hydroxyurea. Parasitol Res 2002;88:627-31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436- 002-0628-1.

[11] Afzan MY, Suresh K. Pseudocyst forms of Trichomonas vaginalis from cervical neoplasia. Parasitol Res 2012;111(1): 371-81.

[12] De Jesus JB, Cuervo P, Junqueira M, Britto C, Silva-Filho FC, Soares MJ. A further proteomic study on the effect of iron in the human pathogen Trichomonas vaginalis. Proteomics 2007; 7(12):1961-72.

[13] Adad SJ, de Lima RV, Sawan ZT, Silva ML, de Souza MA, Saldanha JC, et al. Frequency of Trichomonas vaginalis, Candida sp and Gardnerella vaginalis in cervical-vaginal smears in four different decades. Sao Paulo Med J 2001;119: 200-5.

[14] Paniker CKJ. Textbook of medical parasitology. 7th ed. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) LTD.; 2013. p. 276.

[15] Mehlhorn H. Human parasites diagnosis, treatment, prevention. 7th ed. Springer; 2016. p. 20-3.

[16] Sutcliffe S, Neace C, Magnuson NS, Reeves R, Alderete JF. Trichomonosis, a common curable STI, and prostate carcinogenesise a proposed molecular mechanism. PLoS Pathog 2012;8(8):1-4.

[17] Kirkcaldy RD, Augostini P, Asbel LE, Bernstein KT, Kerani RP, Mettenbrink CJ, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis antimicrobial drug resistance in 6 US cities, STD surveillance network, 2009-2010. Emerg Infect Dis 2012;18(6):939-43. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1806.111590.

[18] Workowski KA, Bolan GA. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. MMWR Recomm Rep 2015;64:1-137. PMID: 26042815.

[19] Vos T, Flaxman AD, Naghavi M, Lozano R, Mich-aud C, Ezzati M, et al. Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 2012;380(9859):2163-96.

[20] Sutton M, Sternberg M, Koumans EH, McQuillan G, Berman S, Markowitz L. The prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among reproductive-age females in the United States, 2001-2004. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45(10):1319-26. https://doi.org/10.1086/522532.

[21] Van Der Pol B, Williams JA, Orr DP, Batteiger BE, Fortenberry JD. Prevalence, incidence, natural history, and response to treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among adolescent females. J Infect Dis 2005;192:2039-44. https://doi.org/10.1086/498217.

[22] Workowski KA, Berman SMC. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2006;55:52-4.

[23] Sena AC, Miller WC, Hobbs MM, Schwebke JR, Leone PA, Swygard H, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis infection in male sexual partners: implications for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44:13-22. https://www.jstor. org/stable/4485189.

[24] Bowden FJ, Garnett GP. Trichomonas vaginalis epidemiology: parameter sing and analysis a model of treatment interventions. Sex Transm Dis 2000;76:248-56. https://doi.org/ 10.1136/sti.76.4.248.

[25] Hardick J, Yang S, Lin S, Duncan D, Gaydos C. Use of the Roche Light Cycler instrument in a Real-time PCR for Trichomonas vaginalis in urine sample from females and males. J clini Microbial 2001;41:5619-22. https://doi.org/10.1128/ jcm.41.12.5619-5622.2003.

[26] Kurth A, Whittington WLH, Golden MR, Thomas KK, Holmes KK, Schwebke. Performance of a new rapid assay for detection of Trichomonas vaginalis. J Clin Microbiol 2004;42(7): 2940-3.

[27] Jill SH, Byron EB, Braslins P, Feldman JA, Hobbs MM, Sankey HZ, et al. Use of an immunochromatographic assay for rapid detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in vaginal specimens. J Clin Microbiol 2005;43:684-7.

[28] Draper D, Parker R, Patterson E, Jones W, Beutz M, French J, et al. Detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in pregnant women with the InPouch TV system. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:1016-8.

[29] Safayi delouyi Z, Valadkhani Z, Sohrabi M. Analysis the prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis in women clinics of Tehran city's referents by PCR. Horizon Med Sci 2015;20(4): 223-9.

[30] Madico G, Quinn TC, Rompalo K, McKee T, Gaydos CA. Diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis infection by PCR using vaginal swab samples. J Clin Microbiol 1998;36:3205-10.

[31] Schwebke J, Burgess D. Trichomoniasis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2004;17:794-803.

[32] Garcia LS. Diagnostic medical parasitology. 5th ed. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Washington; 2007. p. 123-30.

[33] Ojuromi O, Oyibo W, Tayo D. Reliance on microscopy in Trichomonas vaginalis diagnosis and its prevalence in females presenting with vaginal discharge in Lagos, Nigeria. J infect Devel Coun 2007;1:210-3.

[34] Al-Ani SFI, AL-Hadithi IAW, AL-Hadithi RJK. Factors affecting vaginal trichomoniasis among women in Ramadi. J Basrah Res 2001;27:24-35.

[35] Al-Saeed WM. Detection of Trichomonas vaginalis by different methods in women from Dohok province, Iraq. East Mediterr Health J 2011;17(9):706-9. https://iris.who.int/ handle/10665/118144.

[36] Kadir MA, Fattah CO. Trichomonas vaginalis among women in Sulaimania governorate-Iraq. Tikr J Pharma Sci 2010;6(1): 1-9.

[37] Al-Abady FA, Al-Khazrajee ZA. Epidemiology study parasite Trichomonas vaginalis at Thi-Qar province. J Thi-Qar Univ 2014;9(1):1-9.

[38] Nouraddin AS, Alsakee HM. Immunological aspects of Trichomonas vaginalis infection in women attending maternity teaching hospital and some public health centers in Erbil governorate, northern Iraq. Cihan Univ Erbil Sci J 2019;3(1): 56-60. https://doi.org/10.24086/cuesj.v3n1y2019.pp56-60.

[39] Rahi AA, Kadhim RW, Sajad H. Prospective study of Trichomonas vaginalis infection. Scholars J Appl Med Sci 2014; 2(1D):455-60.

[40] Rahi AA, Ali MA, Khamesipour A. Comparison of Real time PCR with traditional tools for diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis in patient with vaginal discharge at Kut city, Iraq. J Adv Biol 2014;5(3):697-702.

[41] Hussein AA, Shaker MJ. Infection rate of Trichomonas vaginalis among women in Baqubah city. Int J Sci Res 2017;6(8): 1954-7.

[42] Al-Ammash MSJ. Study on prevalence of Trichomomas vaginalis in Samarra city with observation of alcoholic extract effect of Peganum harmala plant in vitro. Tikrit J Pharma Sci 2017;12(1):31-47.

[43] Al-Abbas WDS, Radhi OA. Incidence of Chlamydia trachomatis and Trichomonas vaginalis genital infections among non-pregnant women in Al e Najaf province. Kufa J Nursing Sci 2019;9(1).

[44] Al-Abodi HRJ, Al-Shaibani KTM, Shaker EM. Molecular investigation of Trichomoniasis in women in Al-Muthana province/Iraq. In: The 1st international scientific conference on pure science; 2019.

[45] Salman YJ, Ahmed ES, Taqi RH. ABO blood group and incidence of Chlamydia trachomatis, Trichomonas vaginalis infections among child bearing women in Kirkuk Province. J Medi Sci Clini Res 2019;7(4):1106-16.

[46] Kadhum NJ, AL-Mayah SH, Raisan SJ. Epidemiological study on Trichomonas vaginalis among the women who attended the hospitals of Basra province. J Basrah Res (Sciences) 2020;46(2):64-73.

[47] Al-Kahfaji MSA. Infection rate of trichomoniasis among women in AL Hilla city. Indian J Pub Heal Res Develop 2020; 11:2.

[48] AL-Majidii NKS, ALSaady HAM. The prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis parasite among women in some regions of Maysan province. Periodico Tche Quim 2020;17(36):784-97.

[49] Al-Khalidy KAH, Al-abodi HR. Effect of vaginal trichomoniasis on women who suffer from delayed pregnancy. Europ J Mole Clini Medi 2020;7(1):45-50.

[50] Bedair NH, Ali HZ. Comparison of trichomoniasis diagnosis by microscopic methods and indirect ELISA technique in a sample of Iraqi women. Iraqi J Sci 2020;61(4):742-8.

[51] Alhusseini ZA, Alquraishi MA. Epidemiological study and detection of Trichomonas vaginalis parasite in holy Karbala governorate. Teikyo Medi J 2021;44(6):3297-305.

[52] Ali RB, Ghaima KK. Molecular detection of some sexually transmitted bacteria and Trichomonas vaginalis in Iraqi married couples. Iraqi J Biotechnol 2022;21(2):136-44.

[53] AL-Taei KA. Detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in women with vaginitis in Mosul city. Intern J Appl Sci Technol 2022; 4(3):428-40.

[54] Dahab MM, Koko WS1, Osman EE, Hilali AHM. Prevalence and transmission of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among women in Khartoum State, Sudan. J Pub Health Epidemiol 2012;4(2):34-8. https://doi.org/10.5897/JPHE10.042.

[55] Amadi ANC, Nwagbo AK. Trichomonas vaginalis infection among women in Ikwuano, Abia State, Nigeria. J Appl Sci Environ Manag 2013;17:389-93. https://doi.org/10.4314/ jasem.v17i3.7.

[56] Muller M. The hydrogenosome. J Gen Microbiol 1993; 139(12):2879-89.

[57] Patel SR, Wiese W, Patel SC, Ohl C, Byrd JC, Estrada CA. Systematic review of diagnostic tests for vaginal trichomoniasis. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2000;8(5-6):248-57. https:// doi.org/10.1155/S1064744900000375.

[58] Poole ND, Mc Clelland RS. Global epidemiology of Trichomonas vaginalis. Sex Transm Infect 2013;89(6):418-22. https:// doi.org/10.1136/sextrans-2013-051075.

[59] Arbabi M, Fakhrieh Z, Delavari M, Abdoli A. Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection in Kashan city, Iran (2012- 2013). Iran J Reproduct Med 2014;12(7):507-12. PMID: 25114674.

[60] Pillay A, Lewis J, Ballard RC. Evaluation of Xenostrip-Tv, a rapid diagnostic test for Trichomonas vaginalis infection. J Clin Microbiol 2004;42(8):3853-6.

[61] Krieger JN, Tam MR, Stevens CE, Nielsen IO, Hale J, Kiviat NB, et al. Diagnosis of trichomoniasis. JAMA 1988;259: 1223-7.

[62] Kingston MA, Bansal D, Carlin EM. Shelf life of Trichomonas vaginalis. Int J STD AIDS 2003;14(1):28-9.

[63] Wang J. Bacterial vaginosis. Prim Care Ate Obstet Gynecol 2000;7:181-5.

[64] Shipitsyna E, Zolotoverkhaya E, Chen CY, Chi KH, Grigoryev ASavicheva A, Ballard R, et al. Evaluation of polymerase chain reaction assays for the diagnosis of 8 MA'AEN JOURNAL FOR MEDICAL SCIENCES 2024;XX:1-9 Trichomonas vaginalis infection in Russia. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2012:1468-3083.

[65] Van der Pol B. Trichomonas vaginalis infection: the most prevalent nonviral sexually transmitted infection receives the least public health attention. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44(1):23-5. https://doi.org/10.1086/509934.

[66] Helms DJ, Mosure DJ, Metcalf CA, Douglas Jr JM, Malotte CK, Paul SM, et al. Risk factors for prevalent and incident Trichomonas vaginalis among women attending three sexually transmitted disease clinics. Sex Transm Dis 2008; 35(5):484-8. https://doi.org/10.1097/OLQ.0b013-3181644b9c.

[67] Krashin JW, Koumans EH, Bradshaw-Sydnor AC, Braxton JR, SecorWE, Sawyer MK, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis prevalence, incidence, risk factors and antibiotic-resistance in an adolescent population. Sex Transm Dis 2010;37(7):440-4.

[68] Ali NMH, Dakheel ISH, Abdul-Kareem FA. The incidence of Trichomonas vaginalis in Baghdad among random sample of the population with special reference to malt infection. Technol Respir J 1989;2:276-87.

[69] Al-Quraishi MA. Epidemiology study of Trichomonas vaginalis in Babylon province and the efficiency of Mentha Spicata leafs extracts in vivo. J Nat Sci Res 2014;4(2):72-82.

[70] Al-Ardi MH. Seroprevalence and risk factors of Trichomonas vaginalis among couples in Al-Hamza city-Iraq. Al-Kufa Univ J Bio 2021;13(1):35-44.

[71] Mahdi NK, Gany ZH, Sharief M. Risk factors for vaginal trichomoniasis among women in Basra, Iraq. La Rev Sante Mediterr Orient 2001;7(6):918-24.

[72] Khalaf AK, Al-Asadi SAM, Al-Yaaqub AJ, Al-Mayah SH. Use PCR technique to detect Trichomonas vaginalis among men in Basrah province. Thi-Qar Medi J 2010;4(2):29-36.

[73] Al-Hadraawy SK, Al-Kafagy SMM, Al-Hadraawy MKA. Molecular and immunological study for detection of IL-6 in men infected with Trichomonas vaginalis parasite in Al-Najaf province; Iraq. AL-Qadisiya Medi J 2014;10(18):144-8.

[74] Kadhum SA. Epidemiological study of Trichomonas vaginalis in married females. Proceeding of the Eleventh Veterinary Scientific Conference; 2012. p. 293-8.

[75] Ali MK, Hathal HD, Almoayed HA. Prevalence and diagnosis of sexually transmitted pathogens in A sample of Iraqi women: a molecular study. Ir J Med Sci 2017;15(4):364-76.

[76] Al-Nasiri FS. Prevalence of infection with Trichomonas vaginalis in Tikreet city, Salah AlDeen province. Tikrit J Pure Sci 2015;3(20):1-4.

[77] Taher JH, Shaker MA, Noora M, Sahib NM, Sarhan NG. Epidemiological study of Trichomonas vaginalis and other microorganisms isolated from genital tract of women in Najaf province e Iraq. Al-Kufa Univ J Bio 2018;10(2):1-10.

[78] Al-Hamzawi SA, Al-Awsi GRL. Prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis and its correlation with socio-demographic variables in pregnant women in Al-Diwaniya, Iraq. Mater Today Proc 2023;80:3847-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021. 07.399.

[79] Salman YJ, Abdul Kareem E. Detection of Trichomonas vaginalis among females attending private gynaecological clinics in Kirkuk province using different laboratory methods. J Kirkuk Med Coll 2013;1(2):1-8.

[80] Al-Hussuny EM. An epidemiological study of Trichomonas vaginalis in among women living in Baquba City, Diyala Province, Iraq. Diyala J Pure Sci 2015;11(3):13-25.

[81] Ray K, Bala M, Bhattacharya M, Muralidhar S, Kumari M, Salhan S. Prevalence of RTI/STI agents and HIV infection in symptomatic and asymptomatic women attending peripheral health set-ups in Delhi, India. Epidemiol Infect 2008; 136(10):1432-40.

[82] Merdaw MA, Al-Taei LH, Al-Bashier NT, AlMayah QS. Epidemiological study of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among Iraqi women. Int J Adv Res 2014;2(9):920-5.

[83] Wolner-Hanssen P, Krieger JN, Stevens CE, Kiviat NB, Koutsky L, Critchlow C, et al. Clinical manifestations of vaginal trichomoniasis. J Am Med Assoc 1989;261(4):571-6.

[84] Buve A, Weiss HA, Laga M, Van Dych E, Musonda R, Zekeng L, et al. The epidemicology of Trichomoniasis in women in four African cities. AIDS 2001;15(4):89-96.

[85] Khalil HI, Al-Kuraishi AH, AI-Naimi UAM, AI-Naimi SA. Trichomoniasis vaginalis in women attending family planning unit in AL-Liqa'a hospital. Iraqi J Sci 2012;53(2):747-54.

[86] Jarallah HM. Trichomonas vaginalis infections among women in Basrah Marshes villages South Iraq. Egypt. J Exp Biol 2013; 9(1):71-4.

[87] Nash TE, Weller PF. Protozoal internal infections and trichomoniasis. In: Fauci AS, Braunwald E, Isselbacher KJ, Wilson JD, Martin JB, kasper DL, Hauser SL, Longo DL, editors. Harrison's principles of internal medicine. 14th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1998. p. 1202-5. vol. 1.

[88] Al-Habib HM, Al-Dabbagh NY, Al-Daheen GA. The prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis in association with other microorganisms among women with vaginal discharge in Mosul. Ann Coll Med Mosul 2005;31(1):37-44.

[89] Kadir MA, Ghalib AKH, Tahir SSH, AL-Dalableh F. A study on Trichomonas vaginalis and comparison between the efficacy of metronidazole and secnizole on women in Kirkuk province. J Fac Med Baghdad 2006;48(1):94-7. https://doi. org/10.32007/jfacmedbagdad.4811566.

[90] AL-Muathen DM, Sachit HG. Prevalence trichomoniasis and candidiasis for symptomatic pregnant and non pregnant women in Iraq. Al-Mustansiriyah J Pharma Sci 2016;16(2): 21-6.

[91] Adeoye G, Akande A, Pak J. Epidemiology of Trichomonas vaginalis among women in lagos metropolis, Nigeria. Pakistan. J Bio Sci 2007;10(13):2198-201. https://doi.org/10. 3923/pjbs.2007.2198.2201.

Download

Included in

Parasitology Commons

Share

COinS